Basic sciences in higher education, and teaching approaches in the context of 21st-century advances: Time for a change?
Abstract
Higher education has become a leading life goal for youth across the world. More specifically, the higher education of basic scientists is key in the creation of new developments in economics, healthcare, science, and technology. However, advances and challenges that came with the 21st century have impacted how basic science research is conducted and how basic scientists function within a rapidly changing world. Without a doubt, the way in which basic scientists are trained at higher education institutions needs to be revisited and adapted where needed. By means of a literature review, this article demonstrates the significant challenges and advances in the 21st century, and how these impact the higher education of basic scientists. To summarise, training programmes must include a digitalisation focus and teach the use of digital technology to disseminate research findings to the lay public. Training must hone the skills that will help scientists to survive job scarcity in academia, skills such as curriculum vitae writing, promoting oneself as employable to industry companies and how to repurpose academic experiences for a different job market. Other aspects that need to be included are raising awareness, among the next generation of basic scientists, of the need to conduct research that has nationally and internationally relevant foci. Training must include mentorship during postgraduate training, the use of hybrid models of teaching, curricular integration and interdisciplinary learning and practices during the early stages of these scientists’ careers. Lastly, undergraduate degrees give a general introduction to the basic sciences, but leave graduates with insufficient laboratory experience, and thus they struggle to enter the job market after their undergraduate degree is completed. In other fields, a B. in Accounting makes a graduate an accountant, B. Eng makes them an engineer, but BSc. equates to nothing besides several introductions to various fields. More must be done.
References
Abbas, J., D. Wang, Z. Su, and A. Ziapour. 2021. “The Role of Social Media in the Advent of COVID-19 Pandemic: Crisis Management, Mental Health Challenges and Implications.” Risk Manag Health Policy 14: 1917‒1932. https://doi.org/10.2147/rmhp.S284313.
Abrokwaa, Clemente. 2017. “Colonialism and the Development of Higher Education.” In Re-thinking Postcolonial Education in Sub-Saharan Africa in the 21st Century: Post-Millennium Development Goals, ed. Edward Shizha and Ngoni Makuvaza, 203‒220. Rotterdam: SensePublishers.
Arday, Jason. 2018. “Understanding race and educational leadership in higher education: Exploring the Black and ethnic minority (BME) experience.” Management in Education 32(4): 192‒200. https://doi.org/10.1177/0892020618791002. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0892020618791002.
Arias, I. M. 1989. “Training basic scientists to bridge the gap between basic science and its application to human disease.” The New England Journal of Medicine 321(14): 972‒974. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejm198910053211412.
Bäker, Agnes, Julia Muschallik, and Kerstin Pull. 2020. “Successful mentors in academia: Are they teachers, sponsors and/or collaborators?” Studies in Higher Education 45(4): 723‒735. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2018.1544235.
Bartik, Timothy and George Erickcek. 2007. “Higher Education, the Health Care Industry, and Metropolitan Regional Economic Development: What Can ‘Eds & Meds’ Do for the Economic Fortunes of a Metro Area’s Residents?” Upjohn Institute Staff Working Paper No. 08-140.
Bedford, Juliet, Jeremy Farrar, Chikwe Ihekweazu, Gagandeep Kang, Marion Koopmans, and John Nkengasong. 2019. “A new twenty-first century science for effective epidemic response.” Nature 575(7781): 130‒136. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1717-y.
Bhatt, A. 2010. “Evolution of clinical research: A history before and beyond james lind.” Perspect Clin Res 1(1): 6‒10.
Bhopal, Kalwant. 2017. “Addressing racial inequalities in higher education: Equity, inclusion and social justice.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 40(13): 2293‒2299. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2017.1344267.
Bidgood, Susanna R. 2019. “Continued poxvirus research: From foe to friend.” PLOS Biology 17(1): e3000124. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3000124.
Biochemistry, Governing Council of the Italian Society of Biochemistry Molecular Biology Board of the Italian Professors of. 2020. “Basic and applied science at the time of COVID-19.” FEBS Letters 594(18): 2933‒2934. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/1873-3468.13927. https://febs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/1873-3468.13927.
Blom, A., L. George, M. Adil. 2016. Sub-Saharan African Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Research: A Decade of Development. Washington, DC.: World Bank Study.
Blustein, David L., Ryan Duffy, Joaquim A. Ferreira, Valerie Cohen-Scali, Rachel Gali Cinamon, and Blake A. Allan. 2020. “Unemployment in the time of COVID-19: A research agenda.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 119: 103436. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2020.103436. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001879120300610.
Bok, Karin, Sandra Sitar, Barney S. Graham, and John R. Mascola. 2021. “Accelerated COVID-19 vaccine development: Milestones, lessons, and prospects.” Immunity 54(8): 1636‒1651. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2021.07.017. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1074761321003034.
Botha, Maria Magdalena. 2010. “Compatibility Between Internationalizing and Africanizing Higher Education in South Africa.” Journal of Studies in International Education 14(2): 200‒213. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315309357943. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1028315309357943.
Brownell, Sara, Jordan Price, and Lawrence Steinman. 2013. “Science Communication to the General Public: Why We Need to Teach Undergraduate and Graduate Students this Skill as Part of Their Formal Scientific Training.” Journal of Undergraduate Neuroscience Education: A publication of FUN, Faculty for Undergraduate Neuroscience 12: E6‒E10.
Burman, R. J., T. J. de Wet, M. Amoni, K. M. Düsterwald, D. M. Favara, M. Setshedi, C. L. Rametse, and A. A. Katz. 2019. “Training South African clinician-scientists: Lessons from the University of Cape Town’s intercalated programme.” SAMJ 109: 914‒918. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0256-95742019001200007&nrm=iso.
Campbell, Robert A. 2003. “Preparing the Next Generation of Scientists: The Social Process of Managing Students.” Social Studies of Science 33(6): 897‒927. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306312703336004. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0306312703336004.
Casad, Bettina, Jillian Franks, Christina Garasky, Melinda Kittleman, Alanna Roesler, Deidre Hall, and Zachary Petzel. 2020. “Gender inequality in academia: Problems and solutions for women faculty in STEM.” Journal of Neuroscience Research 99. https://doi.org/10.1002/jnr.24631.
Chankseliani, Maia, Ikboljon Qoraboyev, and Dilbar Gimranova. 2021. “Higher education contributing to local, national, and global development: New empirical and conceptual insights.” Higher Education 81(1): 109‒127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-020-00565-8.
Crossman, P. 2004. Perceptions of ‘Africanisation’ Or ‘endogenisation’ at African Universities: Issues and Recommendations.
database, uniRank. 2021. African Universities World Representation. (Sydney New South Wales, Australia.: uniRank). https://www.4icu.org/Africa/#:~:text=How%20many%20Universities%20are%20there,higher%2Deducation%20institutions%20in%20Africa.
De Wit, Hans and Philip G. Altbach. 2021. “Internationalization in higher education: Global trends and recommendations for its future.” Policy Reviews in Higher Education 5(1): 28‒46. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322969.2020.1820898.
DeFranco, D. B. and G. Sowa. 2014. “The importance of basic science and research training for the next generation of physicians and physician scientists.” Mol Endocrinol 28(12): 1919‒1921. https://doi.org/10.1210/me.2014-1343.
Dei, Daniel, Robert Osei-Bonsu, and Samuel Amponsah. 2020. "A Philosophical Outlook on Africa's Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century: Challenges and Prospects." In Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges, ed. Kirsi Tirri and Auli Toom. IntechOpen.
Dobson, Geoffrey P. 2020. “Science and the War on Truth and Coronavirus.” Frontiers in Medicine 7(563). https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2020.00563. https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fmed.2020.00563.
Dominguez, Isabel and Ann C. Zumwalt. 2020. “Integrating the basic sciences in medical curricula: Focus on the basic scientists.” Advances in Physiology Education 44(2): 119‒123. https://doi.org/10.1152/advan.00172.2019. https://journals.physiology.org/doi/abs/10.1152/advan.00172.2019.
Dzau, Victor J. and Celynne A. Balatbat. 2017. “Cardiovascular Research and the National Academy of Medicine: Advancing Progress in Science and Medicine.” Circulation Research 120(1): 23‒26. https://doi.org/doi:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.116.310358. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.116.310358.
Dzvimbo, Kuzvinetsa Peter and Kholeka Constance Moloi. 2013. “Globalisation and the internationalisation of higher education in sub-Saharan Africa.” South African Journal of Education 33: 00‒00. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0256-01002013000300015&nrm=iso.
Evans, P. C., G. E. Rainger, J. C. Mason, T. J. Guzik, E. Osto, Z. Stamataki, D. Neil, et al. 2020. “Endothelial dysfunction in COVID-19: A position paper of the ESC Working Group for Atherosclerosis and Vascular Biology, and the ESC Council of Basic Cardiovascular Science.” Cardiovasc Res 116(14): 2177‒2184. https://doi.org/10.1093/cvr/cvaa230.
Filewod, Niall C., Jane Batt, Andras Kapus, Katalin Szaszi, Gregory D. Fairn, Arthur S. Slutsky, and Warren L. Lee. 2018. “Should basic science matter to clinicians?” The Lancet 391(10119): 410‒412. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)30199-5.
Foletti, A. and S. Fais. 2019. “Unexpected Discoveries Should Be Reconsidered in Science ‒ A Look to the Past?” Int J Mol Sci 20(16). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20163973.
Foundation, National Science. 2018 2018. Higher Education in Science and Engineering. (USA). https://nsf.gov/statistics/2018/nsb20181/report/sections/higher-education-in-science-and-engineering/graduate-education-enrollment-and-degrees-in-the-united-states.
Friedman, L. M., C. D. Furberg, D. L. DeMets, D. M. Reboussin, and C. B. Granger. 2016. “Fundamentals of Clinical Trials. Fifth Edition.” Anticancer Research 36(1): 480‒480. https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/36/1/480.1.full.pdf.
Fröhlich, Holger, Rudi Balling, Niko Beerenwinkel, Oliver Kohlbacher, Santosh Kumar, Thomas Lengauer, Marloes H. Maathuis, et al. 2018. “From hype to reality: Data science enabling personalized medicine.” BMC Medicine 16(1): 150. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-018-1122-7.
Gambheera, Harischandra. 2016. “Social changes in the 21st century have differentially affected the mental health scenario in the developing world.” Indian Journal of Social Psychiatry 32(3): 238‒242. https://doi.org/10.4103/0971-9962.193198. https://www.indjsp.org/article.asp?issn=0971-9962;year=2016;volume=32;issue=3;spage=238;epage=242;aulast=Gambheera.
Goolam, Mohamedbhai. 2011. “Higher Education in Africa: Facing the Challenges in the 21st Century.” International Higher Education 0(63). https://doi.org/10.6017/ihe.2011.63.8534. https://ejournals.bc.edu/index.php/ihe/article/view/8534.
Groups, World Bank Country and Lending. 2020. Country Classification. (World Bank Group). https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups.
Hanlon, Shane M. 2019. “Scientists who leave research to pursue other careers in science are still scientists.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116(36): 17624‒17624. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1909427116. https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/116/36/17624.full.pdf.
Hénard, F., L. Diamond, and D. Roseveare. 2012. Approaches to Internationalisation and Their Implications for Strategic Management and Institutional Practice. OECD.
HESA. 2020. “Higher education institutions in the UK.” HESA provider metadata. https://www.hesa.ac.uk/support/providers. (Accessed 15 October).
https://journals.co.za/doi/abs/10.10520/EJC191482.
Hutchinson, Lisa and Vincent T. DeVita. 2008. “The era of personalized medicine: Back to basics.” Nature Clinical Practice Oncology 5(11): 623‒623. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncponc1253.
Irby, D. M., M. Cooke, and B. C. O’Brien. 2010. “Calls for reform of medical education by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching: 1910 and 2010.” Acad Med 85(2): 220‒227. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181c88449. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20107346.
Islam, M. A., R. M. Talukder, R. Taheri, and N. Blanchard. 2016. “Integration of Basic and Clinical Science Courses in US PharmD Programs.” American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 80(10): 166. https://doi.org/10.5688/ajpe8010166.
Iyngkaran, P. and M. Thomas. 2015. “Bedside-to-Bench Translational Research for Chronic Heart Failure: Creating an Agenda for Clients Who Do Not Meet Trial Enrollment Criteria.” Clin Med Insights Cardiol 9(Suppl 1): 121‒132. https://doi.org/10.4137/cmc.S18737.
Jorgenson, Dale W. and Khuong M. Vu. 2016. “The ICT revolution, world economic growth, and policy issues.” Telecommunications Policy 40(5): 383‒397. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2016.01.002. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308596116000033.
Joyner, Michael J. 2011. “Why Physiology Matters in Medicine.” Physiology 26(2): 72‒75. https://doi.org/10.1152/physiol.00003.2011. https://journals.physiology.org/doi/abs/10.1152/physiol.00003.2011.
Kamwendo, Gregory H. 2016. “Unpacking Africanisation of higher education curricula.” In Africanising the Curriculum: Indigenous Perspectives and Theories, ed. Vuyisile Msila, 11‒31. AFRICAN SUN MeDIA.
Kang, Sung Pil, Yan Chen, Vanessa Svihla, Amber Gallup, Kristen Ferris, and Abhaya K. Datye. 2020. “Guiding change in higher education: An emergent, iterative application of Kotter’s change model.” Studies in Higher Education: 1‒20. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2020.1741540.
Kaufmann, Stefan H. E. 2020. “Vaccination Against Tuberculosis: Revamping BCG by Molecular Genetics Guided by Immunology.” Frontiers in Immunology 11(316). https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.00316. https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fimmu.2020.00316.
Kenner, Carole and Jana L. Pressler. 2006. “Successfully Climbing the Academic Leadership Ladder.” Nurse Educator 31(1): 1‒3. https://journals.lww.com/nurseeducatoronline/Fulltext/2006/01000/ Successfully_Climbing_the_Academic_Leadership.1.aspx.
Kromydas, Theocharis. 2017. “Rethinking higher education and its relationship with social inequalities: Past knowledge, present state and future potential.” Palgrave Communications 3(1): 1. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-017-0001-8.
Kunselman, Julie, Christopher Hensley, and Richard Tewksbury. 2003. “Mentoring in academe: Models for facilitating academic development.” Journal of Criminal Justice Education 14(1): 17‒35. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511250300085631.
La Caze, Adam. 2011. “The role of basic science in evidence-based medicine.” Biology and Philosophy 26: 81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-010-9231-5.
Lezotre, Pierre-Louis. 2014. “State of Play and Review of Major Cooperation Initiatives.” In International Cooperation, Convergence and Harmonization of Pharmaceutical Regulations, 7‒170.
Lim, S. Y. and D. J. Hausenloy. 2012. “Remote ischemic conditioning: from bench to bedside.” Front Physiol 3: 27. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2012.00027. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22363297.
Maarman, G. J. 2020. “Making a case for metallothioneins conferring cardioprotection in pulmonary hypertension.” Med Hypotheses 137: 109572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2020.109572. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31986470.
Maarman, G. J., G. Chakafana, and K. Sliwa. 2020. “World Heart Day: A World Heart Federation communique on the future of basic sciences and translational medicine in global cardiovascular research.” Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 319(3): L545‒L546. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajplung.00339.2020. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32726129.
Maarman, G. J., J. Shaw, and B. Allwood. 2020. “Pulmonary hypertension in majority countries: Opportunities amidst challenges.” Curr Opin Pulm Med 26(5): 373‒383. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCP.0000000000000702. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32701672.
Maarman, Gerald J. 2019. “Cardioprotection conferred by rooibos (Aspalathus linearis): A mini review to highlight a potential mechanism of action.” South African Journal of Science 115: 1‒4. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0038-23532019000400015&nrm=iso.
Maarman, Gerald J. and Sandrine Lecour. 2021. “Melatonin against pulmonary arterial hypertension: is it ready for testing in patients?” Cardiovascular Journal of Africa 32(2): 111‒112. https://doi.org/doi:10.5830/CVJA-2021-008. https://journals.co.za/doi/abs/10.5830/CVJA-2021-008.
Mabokela, Reitumetse Obakeng. 2000. “‘We Cannot Find Qualified Blacks’: Faculty Diversification Programmes at South African Universities.” Comparative Education 36(1): 95‒112. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3099853.
Machika, P. and B. Johnson. 2015. “Postgraduate students’ experience of poverty and academic success at a university of technology in South Africa.” South African Journal of Higher Education 29(6): 167‒181. https://doi.org/doi:10.10520/EJC191482.
Malisch, Jessica L., Breanna N. Harris, Shanen M. Sherrer, Kristy A. Lewis, Stephanie L. Shepherd, Pumtiwitt C. McCarthy, Jessica L. Spott, et al. 2020. “Opinion: In the wake of COVID-19, academia needs new solutions to ensure gender equity.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117(27): 15378‒15381. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2010636117. https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/117/27/15378.full.pdf.
Marian, A. J. 2021. “Current state of vaccine development and targeted therapies for COVID-19: Impact of basic science discoveries.” Cardiovasc Pathol 50: 107278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carpath.2020.107278.
Marino, Francesco E. 2021. “Mentoring gone wrong: What is happening to mentorship in academia?” Policy Futures in Education 19(7): 747‒751. https://doi.org/10.1177/1478210320972199. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1478210320972199.
Martinez, N. and H. Kornfeld. 2019. “Tuberculosis and diabetes: From bench to bedside and back.” Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 23(6): 669‒677. https://doi.org/10.5588/ijtld.18.0805.
Martinez, Wendy. 2018. “How science and technology developments impact employment and education.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115(50): 12624‒12629. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1803216115. https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/115/50/12624.full.pdf.
McKay, Tracey, Anban Naidoo, and Zach Simpson. 2018. “Exploring the Challenges of First-Year Student Funding: An Intra-Institutional Case Study.” Journal of Student Affairs in Africa 6. https://doi.org/10.24085/jsaa.v6i1.3063.
Mgaiwa, Samson John. 2021. “Fostering Graduate Employability: Rethinking Tanzania’s University Practices.” SAGE Open 11(2): 21582440211006709. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211006709. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/21582440211006709.
Miranda, Juan. 2021. “Chapter 4: Medicinal plants and their traditional uses in different locations.” In Phytomedicine, ed. Rouf Ahmad Bhat, Khalid Rehman Hakeem, Moonisa Aslam Dervash, 207‒223. Academic Press.
Mohs, Richard and Nigel Greig. 2017. “Drug discovery and development: Role of basic biological research.” Alzheimer’s & Dementia: Translational Research & Clinical Interventions 3(4): 651‒657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trci.2017.10.005.
Moore, Kyle K., Ismael Cid-Martinez, Jermaine Toney, Jason A. Smith, Amber C. Kalb, Jean H. Shin, and Roberta M. Spalter-Roth. 2018. “Who Climbs the Academic Ladder? Race and Gender Stratification in a World of Whiteness.” The Review of Black Political Economy 45(3): 216‒244. https://doi.org/10.1177/0034644618813667. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0034644618813667.
Nayyar, Deepak. 2007. “Globalisation: What Does It Mean for Higher Education?” Economic and Political Weekly 42(50): 30‒35. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40277048.
Northam, Sarah H. 2015. “Braving 21st-century challenges.” ACRL 2000–09. College & Research Libraries News 76(8): 454‒456. https://doi.org/10.5860/crln.76.8.9369. https://crln.acrl.org/index.php/crlnews/article/view/9369/10526.
Opie, L. H. 1980. “Drugs and the heart. VII. Which drug for which disease?” Lancet 1(8176): 1011‒1017. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(80)91448-8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6103335.
Opie, L. H. 1997. “New developments in cardiovascular drugs: Heart failure ‒ an informal and personal viewpoint.” Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 11(4): 519‒20. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1007798613232. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9358955.
Orr, Dominic, Maren Luebcke, J. Philipp Schmidt, Markus Ebner, Klaus Wannemacher, Martin Ebner, and Dieter Dohmen. 2020. “Four Models of Higher Education in 2030.” In Higher Education Landscape 2030: A Trend Analysis Based on the AHEAD International Horizon Scanning, ed. Dominic Orr, Maren Luebcke, J. Philipp Schmidt, Markus Ebner, Klaus Wannemacher, Martin Ebner and Dieter Dohmen, 25‒42. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Ortlieb, Renate and Silvana Weiss. 2018. “What makes academic careers less insecure? The role of individual-level antecedents.” Higher Education 76(4): 571‒587. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-017-0226-x.
Riedel, Stefan. 2005. “Edward Jenner and the History of Smallpox and Vaccination.” Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings 18(1): 21‒25. https://doi.org/10.1080/08998280.2005.11928028.
Robertson, Susan L. 2021. “Global competences and 21st century higher education – And why they matter.” International Journal of Chinese Education 10(1): 22125868211010345. https://doi.org/10.1177/22125868211010345. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/22125868211010345.
Ross-Hellauer, Tony, Jonathan P. Tennant, Viltė Banelytė, Edit Gorogh, Daniela Luzi, Peter Kraker, Lucio Pisacane, et al. 2020. “Ten simple rules for innovative dissemination of research.” PLOS Computational Biology 16(4): e1007704. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1007704.
Salmi, Jamil. 2000. “Tertiary Education in the Twenty-First Century Challenges and Opportunities.” Human Development Department, LCSHD Paper Series No. 62.
Salmi, Jamil. 2020. “New Challenges for Tertiary Education in the Twenty-First Century.” In Higher Education in Latin America and the Challenges of the 21st Century, ed. Simon Schwartzman, 19‒30. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Schmidt, Joel T. and Min Tang. 2020. “Digitalization in Education: Challenges, Trends and Transformative Potential.” In Führen und Managen in der digitalen Transformation: Trends, Best Practices und Herausforderungen, ed. Mark Harwardt, Peter F. J. Niermann, Andre M. Schmutte and Axel Steuernagel, 287‒312. Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden.
Sheikh, Kabir, Asha George, and Lucy Gilson. 2014. “People-centred science: Strengthening the practice of health policy and systems research.” Health Research Policy and Systems 12(1): 19. https://doi.org/10.1186/1478-4505-12-19.
Sigman, Mark. 2018. “Introduction: Personalized medicine: what is it and what are the challenges?” Fertility and Sterility 109(6): 944‒945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2018.04.027.
Song, P. and T. Karako. 2020. “COVID-19: Real-time dissemination of scientific information to fight a public health emergency of international concern.” Biosci Trends 14(1): 1‒2. https://doi.org/10.5582/bst.2020.01056.
Statista. 2020a. Number of higher education institutions in the United States. (United States). https://www.statista.com/statistics/306880/us-higher-education-institutions-by-state/.
Statista. 2020b. Number of students enrolled in higher education in the United Kingdom from 2009/10 to 2019/20. (United Kingdom). https://www.statista.com/statistics/875015/students-enrolled-in-higher-education-in-the-uk/.
Statista. 2021. Global unemployment figures. (World wide). https://www.statista.com/statistics/266414/unemployed-persons-worldwide/.
Street, R. A. and G. Prinsloo. 2013. “Commercially Important Medicinal Plants of South Africa: A Review.” Journal of Chemistry 2013: 205048. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/205048.
Talgar, C. P. and N. M. Goodey. 2015. “Views from academia and industry on skills needed for the modern research environment.” Biochem Mol Biol Educ 43(5): 324‒332. https://doi.org/10.1002/bmb.20883.
Tang Wee, T., A. Tan, O. Yann Shiou. 2020. Science Education in the 21st Century. Switzerland AG.: Springer.
Tewari, Devi Datt, and Kehinde Damilola Ilesanmi. 2020. “Teaching and learning interaction in South Africa’s higher education: Some weak links.” Cogent Social Sciences 6(1): 1740519. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2020.1740519.
Turner, Caroline Sotello Viernes, Jonathan Luke Wood, Yvonne J. Montoya, Idara R. Essien-Wood, Rebecca A. Neal, Gabriel Escontrías, and Aaron D. Coe. 2012. “Advancing the Next Generation of Higher Education Scholars: An Examination of One Doctoral Classroom.” The International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education 24: 103‒112.
UNESCO. 2020. Startling digital divides in distance learning emerge. (Paris, France). https://en.unesco.org/news/startling-digital-divides-distance-learning-emerge.
Van der Westhuizen, Marichen, Thomas Greuel, and Jacques W. Beukes. 2017. “Are we hearing the voices? Africanisation as part of community development.” HTS Theological Studies 73: 1‒9. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0259-94222017000300041&nrm=iso.
Van Maanen, John. 2015. “The present of things past: Ethnography and career studies.” Human Relations 68(1): 35‒53. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714552287. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0018726714552287.
Wangenge-Ouma, Gerald. 2012. “Tuition fees and the challenge of making higher education a popular commodity in South Africa.” Higher Education 64(6): 831‒844. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-012-9531-6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-012-9531-6.
Wartman, S., A. Davis, M. Wilson, N. Kahn, R. Sherwood, and A. Nowalk. 2001. “Curricular change: Recommendations from a national perspective.” Acad Med 76(4 Suppl): S140‒5. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001888-200104001-00028. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11299188.
WHO. Programme on Traditional, Medicine. 2000. General guidelines for methodologies on research and evaluation of traditional medicine. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Wijeratne, D. Thiwanka, Katherine Lajkosz, Susan B. Brogly, M. Diane Lougheed, Li Jiang, Ahmad Housin, David Barber, et al. 2018. “Increasing Incidence and Prevalence of World Health Organization Groups 1 to 4 Pulmonary Hypertension.” Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes 11(2): e003973. https://doi.org/doi:10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.117.003973. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.117.003973.
Woodard, Howard C., Sonya S. Shepherd, Mindy Crain-Dorough, and Michael D. Richardson. 2011. “The Globalization of Higher Education through the Lens of Technology and Accountability.” Journal on Educational Technology 8: 16‒24.
Woolston, C. 2021. “Researchers’ career insecurity needs attention and reform now, says international coalition.” Career News, 8 June 2021. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-01548-0.
Yamin, Mohammad. 2019. “Information technologies of 21st century and their impact on the society.” International Journal of Information Technology 11(4): 759‒766. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41870-019-00355-1.
Yograj, Sabita, Anjali Bhat, Rajiv Gupta, Geetika Gupta, and Leela Kalsotra. 2019. “Role of basic sciences in making of a clinician: Perspectives of medical students from North India.” Journal of Education and Health Promotion 8(1): 171‒171. https://doi.org/10.4103/jehp.jehp_66_19. https://www.jehp.net/article.asp?issn=2277-9531;year=2019;volume=8;issue=1;spage=171;epage=171;aulast=Yograj.
Zarei, S. and S. Mohammadi. 2021. “Challenges of higher education related to e-learning in developing countries during COVID-19 spread: A review of the perspectives of students, instructors, policymakers, and ICT experts.” Environ Sci Pollut Res Int: 1‒7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14647-2.
Zha, Qiang. 2003. “Internationalization of Higher Education: Towards a Conceptual Framework.” Policy Futures in Education 1: 248‒270. https://doi.org/10.2304/pfie.2003.1.2.5.
Zhang, X. H. 1987. “The development of industry and higher education in developing countries.” Industry and Higher Education 1(1): 52‒54. https://doi.org/10.1177/095042228700100111. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/095042228700100111.
Zimmerman, Andrea M. 2018. “Navigating the path to a biomedical science career.” PLOS ONE 13(9): e0203783. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203783.
Copyright (c) 2022 Gerald Maarman
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
This journal is an open access journal, and the authors and journal should be properly acknowledged, when works are cited.
Authors, copyright holders, may use the publishers version for teaching purposes, in books, theses, dissertations, conferences and conference papers.
A copy of the authors' publishers version may also be hosted on the following websites:
- Non-commercial personal homepage or blog.
- Institutional webpage.
- Authors Institutional Repository.
The following notice should accompany such a posting on the website: This is an electronic version of an article published in SAJHE, Volume XXX, number XXX, pages XXX “XXX", DOI. Authors should also supply a hyperlink to the original paper or indicate where the original paper (http://www.journals.ac.za/index.php/SAJHE) may be found.
Authors publishers version, affiliated with the Stellenbosch University will be automatically deposited in the University Institutional Repository SUNScholar.
Articles as a whole, may not be re-published with another journal.
The following license applies:
Attribution CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
