Tranformation of a health sciences postgraduate population (2008-2017) at a higher education institution in South Africa: Has this occurred?
Abstract
Despite efforts to prioritise transformation of the previously disadvantaged population, inequalities created by the Apartheid system persist in the South African higher education system. This study assessed transformation in relation to population affinity and gender of first-time enrolments of Health Sciences (HS) postgraduate students at the University of the Witwatersrand (Wits), Johannesburg. A retrospective study of the Wits HS postgraduate student database was used for this assessment. The probability of a postgraduate student being Black African increased by 7.5 per cent per year [OR: 1.075, 95% CI (1.052–1.099), p<0.001] over the period 2008–2017 and of being female, increased by 5.6 per cent per year [OR: 1.056, 95% CI (1.033–1.081), p<0.001]. While transformation has occurred, Black African females are still under-represented. The transformation of the postgraduate student body as observed in this study is of importance to other countries struggling with racial and gender equity in the health workforce.
References
Acosta, David, and Polly Olsen. 2006. “Meeting the Needs of Regional Minority Groups: The University of Washington’s Programs to Increase the American Indian and Alaskan Native Physician Workforce.” Academic Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ACM.0000238047. 48977.05.
Alwazzan, Lulu, and Charlotte E. Rees. 2016. “Women in Medical Education: Views and Experiences from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.” Medical Education 50(8): 852–65. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/medu.12988.
Badat, Saleem. 2004. “Transforming South African Higher Education 1990–2003: Goals, Policy Initiatives and Critical Challenges and Issues.” In National Policy and a Regional Response in South African Education, edited by N. Cloete, P. Pillay, S. Badat, and T. Moja, 1–50. Oxford University Press.
Badat, Saleem. 2010. “The Challenges of Transformation in Higher Education and Training Institutions in South Africa.” Development Bank of South Africa. 2010. http://www.ru.ac.za/media/ rhodesuniversity/content/vc/documents/The Challenges of Transformation in Higher Eduaction and Training Institutions in South Africa.pdf.
Bazana, Sandiso, and Opelo P. Mogotsi. 2017. “Social Identities and Racial Integration in Historically White Universities: A Literature Review of the Experiences of Black Students.” Transformation in Higher Education 2: 13. https://doi.org/10.4102/the.v2i0.25.
Benatar, Solly. 2014. “Professional Competence and Professional Misconduct in South Africa.” South African Medical Journal. South African Medical Association. https://doi.org/10.7196/samj.8492.
Benjamin, Kapinga Bernadetha, and Bie Dunrong. 2010. “Increasing Access and Equity in Higher Education In Tanzania: A Case Study of University of Dar Es Salaam.” The Social Sciences 5(3): 208–2012.
Breetzke, Gregory D., and David W. Hedding. 2018. “The Changing Demography of Academic Staff at Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in South Africa.” Higher Education 76(1): 145–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-017-0203-4.
Breier, Mignonne, and Angelique Wildschut. 2008. “ORIGINAL ARTICLES Changing Gender Profile of Medical Schools in South Africa.” South African Medical Journal 98(7): 557–60.
Bunting, Ian. 2006. “The Higher Education Landscape Under Apartheid.” In Transformation in Higher Education: Global Pressures and Local Realities, 35–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-4006-7_3.
Chege, Fatuma N., and Madeleine Arnot. 2012. “The Gender-Education-Poverty Nexus: Kenyan Youth’s Perspective on Being Young, Gendered and Poor.” Comparative Education 48(2): 195–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050068.2011.608897.
Cloete, N., and T. Moja. 2005. “Transformation Tensions in Higher Education : Equity, Efficiency , and Deveiopment.” Social Research 72(3): 693–723.
Collinson, Mark A., Stephen M. Tollman, and Kathleen Kahn. 2007. “Migration, Settlement Change and Health in Post-Apartheid South Africa: Triangulating Health and Demographic Surveillance with National Census Data.” Scandinavian Journal of Public Health 35(Suppl 69): 77–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/14034950701356401.
Conco, D., L. Baldwin-Ragaven, N. Christofides, E. Libhaber, L. Rispel, J. White, and B. Kramer. 2020. “Experiences of workplace bullying among academics in a health sciences faculty at a South African University.” South African Medical Journal (SAMJ) (in press).
Coovadia, Hoosen, Rachel Jewkes, Peter Barron, David Sanders, and Diane McIntyre. 2009. “The Health and Health System of South Africa: Historical Roots of Current Public Health Challenges.” The Lancet. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60951-X.
Couper, I. D., and J. F. M. Hugo. 2014. “Addressing the Shortage of Health Professionals in South Africa through the Development of a New Cadre of Health Worker: The Creation of Clinical Associates.” Rural and Remote Health 14(3): 1–8.
Dell, Sharon. 2010. “South Africa: Decline in PhD Numbers a Major Problem.” University World News. 2010. http://www.asocsa.org/news_articles/SharonDell_UniversityWorldNews_SOUTH_ AFRICA-Decline-in-PhD-numbers-a-major-problem-22August2010.pdf.
Department of Education. 1997. “White Paper 3: A Programme for Higher Education Transformation.” Government Gazette. Pretoria: Department of Education. 1997. http://www.education.gov.za/ LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=jc97Bom2utk%3D&tabid=191&mid=484.
Digby, Anne. 2013. “Black Doctors and Discrimination under South Africa’s Apartheid Regime.” Medical History 57(2): 269–90. https://doi.org/10.1017/mdh.2012.106.
DoE see Department of Education.
Du Preez, Petro, Shan Simmonds, and Anné Hendrik Verhoef. 2016. “Rethinking and Researching Transformation in Higher Education: A Meta-Study of South African Trends.” Transformation in Higher Education 1(1): 7. https://doi.org/10.4102/the.v1i1.2.
Du Preez, Petro, Shan Simmonds, and Desiree Chetty. 2017. “Critical Transformation in Higher Education: Ethical Reflections on #Mustfall Movements and Concomitant Gender-Based Violence.” South African Journal of Higher Education 31(6): 96–112.
Essa, Ilhaam. 2011. “Reflecting on Some of the Challenges Facing Postgraduate Nursing Education in South Africa.” Nurse Education Today 31(3): 253–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2010.11.007.
Farrow, Alice. 2015. “Lactation Support and the LGBTQI Community.” Journal of Human Lactation 31(1): 26–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/0890334414554928.
Francis, D., and C. Hemson. 2010. “Initiating Debate South African Journal of Higher Education: Issue on Transformation.” South African Journal of Higher Education 24(6): 875–80.
Gates, Paul E., James H. Ganey, and Marc D. Brown. 2003. “Building the Minority Faculty Development Pipeline.” Journal of Dental Education 67(9): 1034–38.
Hames, Mary. 2007. “HamesSexualIdentity2007.” Sexual Identity and Transformation at a South African University. SOCIAL DYNAMICS 33(1): 52–77.
Harris, Karen L. 2017. “BEE-Ing Chinese in South Africa: A Legal Historic Perspective.” Fundamina 23(2): 1–20. https://doi.org/10.17159/2411-7870/2017/v23n2a1.
Hatchard, John. 1994. Statute Note the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa. Journal of African Law Vol. 38. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021855300011499.
Herman, Chaya. 2011. “Expanding Doctoral Education in South Africa: Pipeline or Pipedream?” Higher Education Research and Development 30(4): 505–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360. 2010.527928.
Hill, Emily K., Rachel A. Blake, Jenna B. Emerson, Peter Svider, Jean Anderson Eloy, Christina Raker, Katina Robison, and Ashley Stuckey. 2015. “Gender Differences in Scholarly Productivity within Academic Gynecologic Oncology Departments.” Obstetrics and Gynecology 126(6): 1279–84. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000001133.
Jancey, Jonine, and Sharyn Burns. 2013. “Institutional Factors and the Postgraduate Student Experience.” Quality Assurance in Education 21(3): 311–22. https://doi.org/10.1108/QAE-Nov-2011-0069.
Joubert, Marina, and Lars Guenther. 2017. “In the Footsteps of Einstein, Sagan and Barnard: Identifying South Africa’s Most Visible Scientists.” South African Journal of Science 113(11–12): 1–9. https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2017/20170033.
Keith, Stephen N., Robert M. Bell, August G. Swanson, and Albert P. Williams. 1985. “Effects of Affirmative Action in Medical Schools: A Study of the Class of 1975.” New England Journal of Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198512123132406.
Kraak, A. H. 2001. Policy ambiguity and slippage: Higher education under new state, 1994‒2001. In Education in retrospect, ed. A. H. Kraak, and M. Young, 85‒120. Pretoria: HSRC Publishers.
Kramer, Beverley, Yosuf Veriava, and John Pettifor. 2015. “Rising to the Challenge: Training the next Generation of Clinician Scientists for South Africa.” African Journal of Health Professions Education 7(2): 153–54. https://doi.org/10.7196/AJHPE.671.
Kuh, George D., and Elizabeth J. Whitt. 1988. “The Invisible Tapestry: Culture in American Colleges and Universities.” ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 1. Washington, D.C.: Association for the Study of Higher Education.
Labonté, Ronald, David Sanders, Thubelihle Mathole, Jonathan Crush, Abel Chikanda, Yoswa Dambisya, Vivien Runnels, et al. 2015. “Health Worker Migration from South Africa: Causes, Consequences and Policy Responses.” Human Resources for Health 13(1): 1–16. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s12960-015-0093-4.
Lander, Bryn, Gillian E. Hanley, and Janet Atkinson-Grosjean. 2010. “Clinician-Scientists in Canada: Barriers to Career Entry and Progress.” PLoS ONE 5(10): 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0013168.
Lehohla, P. 2011. “Census 2011: Population Dynamics in South Africa.” Statistics South Africa. http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/Report-03-01-67/Report-03-01-672011.pdf.
Leiden, Universiteit, and K. U. Leuven. 2012. “Women, Research and Universities: Excellence without Gender Bias.” League of European Research Universities. 2012. http://www.leru.org/files/ publications/LERU_Paper_Women_universities_and_research.pdf.
Lessing, A. C., and S. Schulze. 2002. “Postgraduate Supervision and Academic Support: Students’ Perceptions.” South African Journal of Higher Education 16(2): 139–49. https://doi.org/ 10.4314/sajhe.v16i2.25253.
Lihamba, Amandina, Rosemarie Mwaipopo, and Lucy Shule. 2006. “The Challenges of Affirmative Action in Tanzanian Higher Education Institutions: A Case Study of the University of Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania.” Women’s Studies International Forum 29(6): 581–91. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.wsif.2006.10.003.
Lloyd, Tom, Brenda R. Phillips, and Robert C. Aber. 2004. “Factors That Influence Doctors’ Participation in Clinical Research.” Medical Education 38(8): 848–51. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1365-2929.2004.01895.x.
Luvalo, L. M. 2019. “Relationship between Transformtion and Institutional Culture.” South African Journal of Higher Education 33(1): 184–99. https://doi.org/10.20853/33-1-2934.
Makunga, Nox. 2017. “Women Scientists Lag in Academic Publishing, and It Matters.” The Conversation. 2017. https://theconversation.com/women-scientists-lag-in-academic-publishing-and-it-matters-82521.
Mayekiso, Tokozile, Francois Strydom, Vinitha Jithoo, and Lesley-Anne Katz. 2013. “Creating New Capacity through Postgraduate Selection.” South African Journal of Psychology 34(4): 657–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/008124630403400409.
Mayer, Erik N., Sara M. Lenherr, Heidi A. Hanson, Terry C. Jessop, and William T. Lowrance. 2017. “Gender Differences in Publication Productivity Among Academic Urologists in the United States.” Urology 103(May): 39–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2016.12.064.
Mokhtar, Mahani. 2012. “Intentions and Expectations of Female Phd Students in Engineering at One University in Malaysia.” Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences 56(October): 204–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.09.647.
Monroe, Kristen, Saba Ozyurt, Ted Wrigley, and Amy Alexander. 2008. “Gender Equality in Academia: Bad News from the Trenches, and Some Possible Solutions.” Perspectives on Politics 6(2): 215–33. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592708080572.
Mostert-Wentzel, K., J. Frantz, and T. Van Rooijen. 2013. “Status of Undergraduate Community-Based and Public-Health Physiotherapy Education in South Africa.” SA Journal of Physiotherapy 69(1): 1–10.
Mouton, J. 2003. “South African Science in Transition.” Science Technology & Society 8(2): 235–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/097172180300800205.
Mouton, J. 2007. “Post-Graduate Studies in South Africa: Myths, Misconceptions and Challenges.” South African Journal of Higher Education 21(1): 1078–90.
Mukudi. 2017. “Gender and Education in Africa.” Comparative Education Review 46(2): 234. https://doi.org/10.2307/3542197.
Munene, Ishmael I., and Paschal Wambiya. 2019. “Bridging the Gender Gap through Gender Difference: Aiding Patriarchy in South Sudan Education Reconstruction.” Africa Education Review 16(5): 86–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/18146627.2018.1429052.
Murray, B. K. 2007. “Wits as an ‘Open’ University 1939–1959: Black Admissions to the University of the Witwatersrand.” Journal of Southern African Studies 16(4): 649–76. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/03057079008708255.
NACI. 2009. “Facing the Facts: Women’s Participation in Science, Engineering and Technology 2009.” Report Commissioned by the Science, Engineering and Technology for Women (SET4W) Sub-Committee of the National Advisory Council. 2009. http://www.naci.org.za/wp-content/uploads/Facing-the-Facts-Womens-Participation-in-Science-Engineering-and-Technology-2009.pdf.
Nelson, Alan. 2002. “Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care.” Journal of the National Medical Association 94(8): 666–68. https://doi.org/10.1001/ jama.290.18.2487-b.
Noonan, Allan, Ian Lindong, and Vijai N. Jaitley. 2013. “The Role of Historically Black Colleges and Universities in Training the Health Care Workforce.” American Journal of Public Health 103(3): 412–415. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300726.
Norris, B. D. 2001. “Transformation, Diversity and Organisational Change within Institutions of Higher Education.” South African Journal of Education 21(4): 219–21.
Olaussen, Alexander, Paul A. Jennings, Gerard O’Reilly, Biswadev Mitra, and Peter A. Cameron. 2017. “Barriers to Conducting Research: A Survey of Trainees in Emergency Medicine.” EMA – Emergency Medicine Australasia 29(2): 204–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/1742-6723.12734.
Oredein, Afolakemi Olasumbo. 2002. “Postgraduate Students’ Supervision and Training in Nigerian Tertiary Institutions: A Comparative Study.” Towards Quality in African Higher Education. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Afolakemi_Oredein/publication/237434324_Postgraduate_Students’_Supervision_and_Training_in_Nigerian_Tertiary_Institutions_A_Comparative_Study/links/568e497608aef987e56798bf.pdf.
Ramohai, Juliet. 2019. “A Black Woman’s Perspective on Understanding Transformation and Diversity in South African Higher Education.” Transformation in Higher Education 4: 1–10. https://doi.org/ 10.4102/the.v4i0.58.
Ramrathan, Labby. 2016. “Beyond Counting the Numbers: Shifting Higher Education Transformation into Curriculum Spaces.” Transformation in Higher Education 1(1): 1–8. https://doi.org/ 10.4102/the.v1i1.6.
Robus, Donovan, and Catriona Macleod. 2006. “‘White Excellence and Black Failure’: The Reproduction of Racialised Higher Education in Everyday Talk.” South African Journal of Psychology 36(3): 463–80. https://doi.org/10.1177/008124630603600303.
SACHE. 2016. “South African Higher Education Reviewed; Two Decades of Democracy.” Council on Higher Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/02642060701453288.
Seabi, Joseph, Jaishika Seedat, Katijah Khoza-Shangase, and Lakeasha Sullivan. 2014. “Experiences of University Students Regarding Transformation in South Africa.” International Journal of Educational Management 28(1): 66–81. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/MRR-09-2015-0216.
Shabaya, Judith, and Kwadwo Konadu‐Agyemang. 2004. “Unequal Access, Unequal Participation: Some Spatial and Socio‐economic Dimensions of the Gender Gap in Education in Africa with Special Reference to Ghana, Zimbabwe and Kenya.” Compare 34(4): 395–424. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/0305792042000294805.
Shung-King, Maylene, Lucy Gilson, Chinyere Mbachu, Sassy Molyneux, Kelly W. Muraya, Nkoli Uguru, and Veloshnee Govender. 2018. “Leadership Experiences and Practices of South African Health Managers: What Is the Influence of Gender? A Qualitative, Exploratory Study.” International Journal for Equity in Health. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-018-0859-0.
Smedley, Brian D., Adrienne Y. Stith, and Alan R. Nelson. 2003. Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care (with CD). Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care (with CD). https://doi.org/10.17226/12875.
Smith, Sonya G., Phyllis A. Nsiah-Kumi, Pamela R. Jones, and Rubens J. Pamies. 2009. “Pipeline Programs in the Health Professions, Part 1: Preserving Diversity and Reducing Health Disparities.” Journal of the National Medical Association. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0027-9684(15)31030-0.
Soudien, C. 2009. “Critical Reflection on the Report of the Ministerial Committee on Transformation, Social Cohesion and the Elimination of Discrimination in Public Higher Education.” Perspectives in Education. 2009. https://www.gov.za/report-ministerial-committee-transformation-and-social-cohesion-and-elimination-discrimination.
Stats SA Mid Year population estimates. 2018. “South African Stats SA Mid-Year Population Estimates 2018.” 2018. www.statssa.gov.zainfo@statssa.gov.za.
Sullivan, Louis W. 2004. “Missing Persons: Minorities in the Health Professions, a Report of the Sullivan Commission on Diversity in the Healthcare Workforce.” Diversity. 2004. https://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/handle/1903/22267/Sullivan_Final_Report_000.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
Thackwell, Nicola, Leslie Swartz, Sipho Dlamini, Lebogang Phahladira, Rudzani Muloiwa, and Bonginkosi Chiliza. 2016. “Race Trouble: Experiences of Black Medical Specialist Trainees in South Africa.” BMC International Health and Human Rights 16(1): 1–6. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s12914-016-0108-9.
Thomas, M., and M. J. Thomas. 2000. “A Discussion of Some Critical Aspects in Planning of Community Based Rehabilitation.” Asia Pacific Disability Rehabilitation Journal. 2000. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rzh&AN=2002015856&site=ehost-live.
Times Higher Education Ranking. 2019. “Best Universities for Medicine 2019.” Times Higher Education. 2019. https://www.timeshighereducation.com/student/best-universities/best-universities-medicine.
Tobias, Phillip V. 2005. “Apartheid and Medical Education: The Training of Black Doctors in South Africa.” International Journal of Health Services 13(1): 131–53. https://doi.org/10.2190/fceq-9w7l-wd9p-5cp9.
Turok, Ivan, and Jacqueline Borel-Saladin. 2014. “Is Urbanisation in South Africa on a Sustainable Trajectory?” Development Southern Africa 31(5): 675–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 0376835X.2014.937524.
University of the Witwatersrand Transformation Transformation Office. 2017. “The Operation of Transformation Committees at Faculty and Support Department Level.” University of the Witwatersrand Transformation Guidelines. University of the Witwatersrand. https://www.wits.ac.za/transformationoffice/.
Van Niekerk, A. 1998. “Values, Transformation and Social Work in South Africa.” Social Work 34(1): 60–70.
Volmink, John D. 2008. “Education for Learning to Live Together: What Can We Learn from the South African Experience?” European Journal of Education 43(2): 189–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1465-3435.2008.00346.x.
Waghid, Yusef. 2002. “Knowledge Production and Higher Education Transformation in South Africa: Towards Reflexivity in University Teaching, Research and Community Service.” Higher Education 43(4): 457–488. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015211718131.
Westring, Alyssa Friede, Rebecca M. Speck, Mary Dupuis Sammel, Patricia Scott, Lucy Wolf Tuton, Jeane Ann Grisso, and Stephanie Abbuhl. 2012. “A Culture Conducive to Women’s Academic Success: Development of a Measure.” Academic Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1097/ ACM.0b013e31826dbfd1.
Wing, Adrien Katherine, and Eunice P. De Carvalho. 1995. “Black South African Women: Toward Equal Rights.” Harvard Human Rights Journal 8: 57–100.
Wits University Senior Executive Team. 2015. “Wits University Executive Statement on Accelerating Transformation.” Wits University. Johannesburg: Wits University. 2015. http://blogs.wits.ac.za/ vc/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2015/10/Wits-University-Executive-Statement-on-Accelerating-Transformation2.pdf.
Woodward, Zibing, Zaida Rodriguez, Janice H. Jou, Kian Keyashian, Yiyi Chen, Charles R. Thomas, Grace H. Elta, and Sharlene L. D’Souza. 2017. “Gender Disparities in Gastroenterology Fellowship Director Positions in the United States.” Gastrointestinal Endoscopy 86(4): 595–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gie.2017.01.019.
Yacoob, Zak. 2016. “Sex and Gender Transformation in Africa.” South African Journal of Science 112(11–12): 11–12. https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2016/a0188.
This journal is an open access journal, and the authors and journal should be properly acknowledged, when works are cited.
Authors, copyright holders, may use the publishers version for teaching purposes, in books, theses, dissertations, conferences and conference papers.
A copy of the authors' publishers version may also be hosted on the following websites:
- Non-commercial personal homepage or blog.
- Institutional webpage.
- Authors Institutional Repository.
The following notice should accompany such a posting on the website: This is an electronic version of an article published in SAJHE, Volume XXX, number XXX, pages XXX “XXX", DOI. Authors should also supply a hyperlink to the original paper or indicate where the original paper (http://www.journals.ac.za/index.php/SAJHE) may be found.
Authors publishers version, affiliated with the Stellenbosch University will be automatically deposited in the University Institutional Repository SUNScholar.
Articles as a whole, may not be re-published with another journal.
The following license applies:
Attribution CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
